"A photograph color graded into orange and teal Color grading is the process of improving the appearance of an image for presentation in different environments on different devices. Various attributes of an image such as contrast, color, saturation, detail, black level, and white point may be enhanced whether for motion pictures, videos, or still images. Color grading and color correction are often used synonymously as terms for this process and can include the generation of artistic color effects through creative blending and compositing of different images. Color grading is generally now performed in a digital process either in a controlled environment such as a color suite, or in any location where a computer can be used in dim lighting. The earlier photochemical film process, referred to as color timing, was performed at a film lab during printing by varying the intensity and color of light used to expose the rephotographed image. Since, with this process alone, the user was unable to immediately view the outcome of their changes, the use of a Hazeltine color analyzer was common for viewing these modifications in real time. == Color timing == Color timing is used in reproducing film elements. "Color grading" was originally a lab term for the process of changing color appearance in film reproduction when going to the answer print or release print in the film reproduction chain. By the late 2010s, this film grading technique had become known as color timing and still involved changing the duration of exposure through different filters during the film development process. Color timing is specified in printer points which represent presets in a lab contact printer where 7-12 printer points represent one stop of light. The number of points per stop varied based upon negative or print stock and different presets at Film Labs. In a film production, the creative team would meet with the “Lab Timer” who would watch a running film and make notes dependent upon the team's directions. After the session, the Timer would return to the Lab, and put the film negative on a device (the Hazeltine) which had preview filters with a controlled backlight, and pick exact settings of each printer point for each scene. These settings were then punched onto a paper tape and fed to the high-speed printer where the negative was exposed through a backlight to a print stock. Filter settings were changed on the fly to match the printer lights that were on the paper tape. For complex work such as visual effects shots, "wedges” running through combinations of filters were sometimes processed to aid the choice of the correct grading. This process is used wherever Film materials are being reproduced. == Telecine == With the advent of television, broadcasters quickly realised the limitations of live television broadcasts and they turned to broadcasting feature films from release prints directly from a telecine. This was before 1956 when Ampex introduced the first Quadruplex videotape recorder (VTR) VRX-1000. Live television shows could also be recorded to film and aired at different times in different time zones by filming a video monitor. The heart of this system was the kinescope, a device for recording a television broadcast to film.Kallenberger, Richard H., Cvjetnicanin, George D. (1994). Film into Video: A Guide to Merging the Technologies. Focal Press. The early telecine hardware was the "film chain" for broadcasting from film and utilized a film projector connected to a video camera. As explained by Jay Holben in American Cinematographer Magazine, "The telecine didn't truly become a viable post- production tool until it was given the ability to perform colour correction on a video signal."Holben, Jay (May 1999). "From Film to Tape" American Cinematographer Magazine, pp. 108–122. === How telecine coloring works === In a Cathode-ray tube (CRT) system, an electron beam is projected at a phosphor- coated envelope, producing a spot of light the size of a single pixel. This beam is then scanned across a film frame from left to right, capturing the "vertical" frame information. Horizontal scanning of the frame is then accomplished as the film moves past the CRT's beam. Once this photon beam passes through the film frame, it encounters a series of dichroic mirrors which separate the image into its primary red, green and blue components. From there, each individual beam is reflected onto a photomultiplier tube (PMT) where the photons are converted into an electronic signal to be recorded to tape. In a charge-coupled device (CCD) telecine, a white light is shone through the exposed film image onto a prism, which separates the image into the three primary colors, red, green and blue. Each beam of colored light is then projected at a different CCD, one for each color. The CCD converts the light into an electronic signal, and the telecine electronics modulate these into a video signal that can then be color graded. Early color correction on Rank Cintel MkIII CRT telecine systems was accomplished by varying the primary gain voltages on each of the three photomultiplier tubes to vary the output of red, green and blue. Further advancements converted much of the color- processing equipment from analog to digital and then, with the next-generation telecine, the Ursa, the coloring process was completely digital in the 4:2:2 color space. The Ursa Gold brought about color grading in the full 4:4:4 color space. Color correction control systems started with the Rank Cintel TOPSY (Telecine Operations Programming SYstem) in 1978. In 1984 Da Vinci Systems introduced their first color corrector, a computer-controlled interface that would manipulate the color voltages on the Rank Cintel MkIII systems. Since then, technology has improved to give extraordinary power to the digital colorist. Today there are many companies making color correction control interfaces including Da Vinci Systems, Pandora International, Pogle and more. Some telecines are still in operation in 2018. == Color correction == Some of the main artistic functions of color correction (digital color grading): *Reproduce accurately what was shot *Compensate for variations in the material (i.e., film errors, white balance, varying lighting conditions) *Compensate for the intended viewing environment (dark, dim, bright surrounds) *Optimize base appearance for inclusion of special visual effects *Establish a desired artistic 'look' *Enhance and/or alter the mood of a scene — the visual equivalent to the musical accompaniment of a film; compare also film tinting Note that some of these functions must be prioritized over others; for example, color grading may be done to ensure that the recorded colors match those of the original scene, whereas other times, the goal may instead be to establish a very artificial stylized look. Traditionally, color grading was done towards practical goals. For example, in the film Marianne, grading was used so that night scenes could be filmed more cheaply in daylight. Secondary color correction was originally used to establish color continuity, however the trend today is increasingly moving towards creative goals, such as improving the aesthetics of an image, establishing stylized looks, and setting the mood of a scene through color. Due to this trend, some colorists suggest the phrase "color enhancement" over "color correction". === Primary and secondary color grading === Primary color grading affects the whole image by providing control over the color density curves of red, green, blue color channels, across the entire frame. Secondary correction can isolate a range of hue, saturation and brightness values to bring about alterations in hue, saturation and luminance only in that range, allowing the grading of secondary colors, while having a minimal or usually no effect on the remainder of the color spectrum. Using digital grading, objects and color ranges within a scene can be isolated with precision and adjusted. Color tints can be manipulated and visual treatments pushed to extremes not physically possible with laboratory processing. With these advancements, the color correction process has become increasingly similar to well-established digital painting techniques, ushering forth a new era of digital cinematography. === Masks, mattes, power windows === The evolution of digital color grading tools has advanced to the point where the colorist can use geometric shapes (such as mattes or masks in photo software such as Adobe Photoshop) to isolate color adjustments to specific areas of an image. These tools can highlight a wall in the background and color only that wall, leaving the rest of the frame alone, or color everything but that wall. Subsequent color correctors (typically software-based) have the ability to use spline-based shapes for even greater control over isolating color adjustments. Color keying is also used for isolating areas to adjust. Inside and outside of area-based isolations, digital filtration can be applied to soften, sharpen or mimic the effects of traditional glass photographic filters in nearly infinite degrees. === Motion tracking === When trying to isolate a color adjustment on a moving subject, the colorist traditionally would have needed to manually move a mask to follow the subject. In its most simple form, motion tracking software automates this time-consuming process using algorithms to evaluate the motion of a group of pixels. These techniques are generally derived from match moving techniques used in special effects and compositing work. == Digital intermediate == The evolution of the telecine device into film scanning allowed the digital information scanned from a film negative to be of sufficient resolution to transfer back to film. In the early 1990s, Kodak developed the Cineon Film System to capture, manipulate, and record back to film and they called this the “Digital Intermediate”. This term stuck. The first Digital Intermediate of any form was the Cinesite restoration of “Snow White and The Seven Dwarves” in 1993. [Previously in 1990 for "Rescuers Down Under", the Disney CAPS system had been used to scan artwork, color and composite it, and then record it to film, but this was also intermixed with a traditional lab development process over a length of time] In the late 1990s, the films Pleasantville and O Brother, Where Art Thou? advanced the technology to the point that the creation of a digital intermediate was practical, which greatly expanded the capabilities of the digital telecine colorist in a traditionally film-oriented world. After 2010, almost all feature films go through the DI process, while manipulation through photochemical processing is rare or used on archival films. In Hollywood, O Brother, Where Art Thou? was the first film to be wholly digitally graded. The negative was scanned with a Spirit DataCine at 2K resolution, then colors were digitally fine-tuned using a Pandora MegaDef color corrector on a Virtual DataCine. The process took several weeks, and the resulting digital master was output to film again with a Kodak laser recorder to create a master internegative. Modern motion picture processing typically uses both digital cameras and digital projectors and calibrated devices are essential to predict whether the appropriate colors are appearing. === Hardware-based versus software-based systems === Color grading with Scratch In early use, hardware-based systems (da Vinci 2K, Pandora International MegaDEF, etc.) have historically offered better performance but a smaller feature set than software-based systems. Their real time performance was optimised to particular resolution and bit depths, as opposed to software platforms using standard computer industry hardware that often trade speed for resolution independence, e.g. Apple's Color (previously Silicon Color Final Touch), ASSIMILATE SCRATCH, Adobe SpeedGrade and SGO Mistika. While hardware-based systems always offer real-time performance, some software-based systems need to pre-render as the complexity of the color grading increases. On the other hand, software-based systems tend to have more features such as spline-based windows/masks and advanced motion tracking. The line between hardware and software no longer exists as many software-based color correctors (e.g. Pablo , Mistika, SCRATCH, Autodesk Lustre, Nucoda Film Master and FilmLight's Baselight) use multi processor workstations and a GPU (graphics processing unit) as a means of hardware acceleration. As well, some newer software-based systems use a cluster of multiple parallel GPUs on the one computer system to improve performance at the very high resolutions required for feature film grading. e.g. Blackmagic Design's DaVinci Resolve. Some color grading software like Synthetic Aperture's Color Finesse runs solely as software and will even run on low-end computer systems. High-speed RAID arrays are an essential part of the process for all systems. === Hardware === Hardware systems are no longer common because of the price/performance of software systems. The control panels are placed in a color suite for the colorist to operate the telecine remotely. *Many telecines were controlled by a Da Vinci Systems color corrector 2k or 2k Plus. *Other hardware systems are controlled by Pandora Int.'s Pogle, often with either a MegaDEF, Pixi, or Revolution color grading system. *For some real-time systems used in "linear" editing, color grading systems required an edit controller. The edit controller controls the telecine and a VTR(s) or other recording/playback devices to ensure frame accurate film frame editing. There are a number of systems which can be used for edit control. Some color grading products such as Pandora Int.'s Pogle have a built-in edit controller. Otherwise, a separate device such as Da Vinci Systems' TLC edit controller would be used. *Older systems are: Renaissance, Classic analog, Da Vinci Systems's: The Whiz (1982) and 888; The Corporate Communications's System 60XL (1982–1989) and Copernicus-Sunburst; Bosch Fernseh's FRP-60 (1983–1989); Dubner (1978–1985?), Cintel's TOPSY (1978), Amigo (1983), and ARCAS (1992) systems. All of these older systems work only with standard-definition 525 and 625 video signals, and are considered near obsolete today. === Software === Color grading The controls are both shown on- screen in an application, controlled by a hardware peripheral, or are sometimes accessed as a plugin to a host application. * Baselight from FilmLight is used for HD, 2K, 4K and 3D color grading. Grade operations are controlled via Blackboard. Program supports variety of film and video formats and codecs. FilmLight systems utilises cluster and cloud technology in Linux environment. * Nucoda from Digital Vision provides advance color grading tools working with ACES and HDR at SD to 8K as well as industry leading restoration and image enhancement tools. * Software like Synthetic Aperture's Color Finesse runs as a plugin in host applications like Apple's Final Cut Pro, Adobe's After Effects and Premiere. *DaVinci Resolve from Blackmagic Design operates on macOS, Windows and Linux, utilizing a cluster of multiple parallel GPUs for real time grading of HD, 2K and 4K images in 2D or Stereoscopic 3D. *Lumetri Color inside of Adobe Premiere Pro is released as a part of Adbe Creative Cloud works on Mac and PC. Prior to Lumetri, Adobe used SpeedGrade which was discontinued on August 22, 2017.Rhome, Calen, , Color Grading Software for Professional Videographers, April 22, 2020 * Magic Bullet Colorista II from Red Giant Software offers multi-step color correction with primary, secondary and master stages inside host applications including Apple's Final Cut Pro, Adobe's After Effects and Premiere. * The Grading Sweet is a package of specialized Color Grading plugins for Apple's Final Cut Pro. * Sony Vegas has many built-in filters as well as third-party plugins for color grading. * Apple Final Cut Studio 2 contains Apple Color which is a dedicated software application for color grading. * Bones Dailies by Digital Film Technology * Other programs have their own color grading options (for example Edius or Blender). * Autodesk Lustre is a high-end color grading solution. It features GPU acceleration for most functions. * YUVsoft Color Corrector Adobe After Effects plug-in for Stereo3D color grading. * Mistika (SGO) is a color grading and online editing system. * Quantel's Pablo Rio color correction and finishing system is available as software only or in a range of turnkey configurations. * Assimilate Scratch has advanced color grading and compositing tools and is used for creating digital dailies and for final finishing. It runs in Mac and Windows environments. * Film Convert is a simple color grading tool that converts digital footage to emulate the look of real film stocks *Cinema Grade is a modern color grading plugin built from the ground up. It runs alongside Premiere Pro, DaVinci Resolve & Final Cut Pro X and allows users for the first time to reach in and touch their images and grade them directly in the viewer. == Organizations == In 2016, an international professional organization for film colorists; the Colorist Society International was founded at the NAB Show in Las Vegas. == Gallery == File:Da Vinci Impresario.jpgBlackmagic DaVinci Resolve Advanced Panel File:DaVinci Resolve 12 5colourpage.jpgDaVinci Resolve 12 File:Da Vinci Impresario - control panel.jpgDa Vinci Joy ball control panel File:Cc2kdui.JPGDa Vinci 2k Display File:Pogle control panel 3.jpgPogle control panel and soft knob display File:Pogle control display.jpgPogle SGI monitor display File:Pogle control panel 2.jpgPogle control panel and keyboard File:Pogle control panel 1.jpgPogle control panel joyballs File:Pogle control MegDef.jpgPogle MegaDEF: Two PiXi systems with a multiplexer rack File:Pogle control rack.jpgPogle control rack, CPU and Telecine interface File:Nucoda with Precision Panel and Dolby Reference Monitor.jpgNucoda with Precision Panel and Dolby Reference Monitor File:Scanity Film Scanner - DFT.jpgDFT Scanity File:Telecine site 1.jpgA Shadow Telecine in a color correction suite File:SDC-2000 Spirit DataCine Telecine.JPGSDC-2000 Spirit DataCine Film Deck File:Fdl60-cap-gate.JPGBosch Fernseh FDL 60 Telecine Film Deck and Lens Gate File:Tk-mk-3-rank.JPGRank Cintel Mark 3 File:Tk-ursa-d-rank.JPGCintel URSA Diamond == See also == *One-light *Color balance == References == == External links == * Colorist Society International (CSI) - The Professional Body for Colourists * The TKColorist Internet Group * Why Do You Need Color Correction, video by Terence Curren, senior colorist at Apha Dogs, Inc. * What Can a Colorist Learn from a Director of Photography? Interview with Ellie Ann Fenton *Cinematic Color: From Your Monitor to the Big Screen *A Walk By The Digital Film Colorist… Revolution? Category:Color Category:Film and video technology Category:Filmmaking occupations "

— Color grading 🏵️

"William Read Miller (November 23, 1823November 29, 1887) was the 12th Governor of Arkansas. Born in Batesville, Arkansaw Territory; Miller was Arkansas's first native born Governor. Serving two terms in the turbulent period after Reconstruction, Miller's four-year administration marked the beginnings of New Departure Democrats in Arkansas. Running on a platform of economic growth via reconciliation between whites and freedmen, Miller often was opposed by members of his own party during the infancy of the Lost Cause ideology. His plans to pay back a large state debt including the Holford Bonds, valued at $14 million ($ million today), were often interrupted by racial violence, and his support for public schools and universities was often combated by those in his own party. Miller desired an unprecedented third gubernatorial term in 1881, but the Democrats instead nominated Thomas Churchill, a Democratic hard- liner and former Major General in the Confederate States Army. Following his defeat, Miller served on boards of several railroads and as a trustee of the University of Arkansas. Miller also served as Arkansas State Auditor for twelve of the thirty years between 1857 and his death in 1887, making him the third-longest tenured Auditor in Arkansas history. ==Early life== Miller was born on November 23, 1823 on a farm near Batesville, Arkansaw Territory, to John and Clara Moore Miller. Miller's father was a farmer and register of the U.S. Land Office active in Democratic politics, including serving as a presidential elector twice.. At the age of thirteen, Miller is said to have publicly challenged notable local and fervent Whig Fent Noland regarding Martin Van Buren's credentials. He also saw the Arkansas Territory achieve statehood on June 15, 1836. Miller was educated in local schools when the workload on the family farm allowed, and he showed an early interest in law. Although discouraged from pursuing the legal profession by his father, Miller moved from the family farm to Batesville to read law after turning twenty-one in 1844. Miller's political career blossomed upon moving to Batesville, which was the fourth-largest city and one of the most politically prominent cities in Arkansas at the time. He was elected Independence County Clerk in 1848, and married Susan Elizabeth Bevens, the daughter of Third District Judge William Bevins, the following year.. Governor Elias Conway of the prominent Conway Family appointed Miller to become State Auditor when C.C. Danley resigned the post in 1854, causing Miller to resign as Independence County Clerk and accept the statewide office.. Conway himself had served as State Auditor from 1835–1849, and the post raised Miller's political profile significantly. ==Political career== ===Auditor (1854-1860, 1862-1864, 1874-1876)=== Miller was reelected to that position in 1858, 1860, 1862, and again in 1874 after Reconstruction ended. Miller studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1868. ===Governor (1876-1880)=== Miller was elected Governor of Arkansas in 1876, and was reelected in 1878. Miller was the first native born Arkansas governor. The Miller administration focused on public education and the state's financial problems. He signed legislation that funded the State Blind Asylum and the Arkansas Industrial University. After leaving office Miller served as the Deputy Treasurer of Arkansas in 1881 and 1882. ===Auditor (1887)=== In 1886, he was again elected to the position of State Auditor. ==Personal life== Miller was married to Sarah Susan Bevers and they had seven children. ==Death== Miller is buried at the historic Mount Holly Cemetery in Little Rock, Arkansas. ==Notes== ==References== ==Further reading== * ==External links== * Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture entry * National Governors Association * Old State House Museum Category:1823 births Category:1887 deaths Category:19th-century American lawyers Category:19th- century American politicians Category:Arkansas lawyers Category:American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law Category:American Presbyterians Category:Arkansas Democrats Category:Burials at Mount Holly Cemetery Category:Democratic Party state governors of the United States Category:Governors of Arkansas Category:People from Batesville, Arkansas "

— William Read Miller 🏵️

"The National Revolutionary Army (NRA; ), sometimes shortened to Revolutionary Army () before 1928, and as National Army () after 1928, was the military arm of the Kuomintang (KMT, or the Chinese Nationalist Party) from 1925 until 1947 in the Republic of China. It also became the regular army of the ROC during the KMT's period of party rule beginning in 1928. It was renamed the Republic of China Armed Forces after the 1947 Constitution, which instituted civilian control of the military. Originally organized with Soviet aid as a means for the KMT to unify China during the Warlord Era, the National Revolutionary Army fought major engagements in the Northern Expedition against the Chinese Beiyang Army warlords, in the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) against the Imperial Japanese Army and in the Chinese Civil War against the People's Liberation Army. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the armed forces of the Communist Party of China were nominally incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army (while retaining separate commands), but broke away to form the People's Liberation Army shortly after the end of the war. With the promulgation of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947 and the formal end of the KMT party-state, the National Revolutionary Army was renamed the Republic of China Armed Forces, with the bulk of its forces forming the Republic of China Army, which retreated to the island of Taiwan in 1949. ==History== Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Commander-in-Chief of the National Revolutionary Army, emerged from the Northern Expedition as the leader of China. The NRA was founded by the KMT in 1925 as the military force destined to unite China in the Northern Expedition. Organized with the help of the Comintern and guided under the doctrine of the Three Principles of the People, the distinction among party, state and army was often blurred. A large number of the Army's officers passed through the Whampoa Military Academy, and the first commandant, Chiang Kai-shek, became commander-in-chief of the Army in 1925 before launching the successful Northern Expedition. Other prominent commanders included Du Yuming and Chen Cheng. The end of the Northern Expedition in 1928 is often taken as the date when China's Warlord era ended, though smaller-scale warlord activity continued for years afterwards. NRA troops against Sun Chuanfang's private army preparing to defend Shanghai. Hankou during the Northern Expedition. In 1927, after the dissolution of the First United Front between the Nationalists and the Communists, the ruling KMT purged its leftist members and largely eliminated Soviet influence from its ranks. Chiang Kai-shek then turned to Germany, historically a great military power, for the reorganization and modernization of the National Revolutionary Army. The Weimar Republic sent advisers to China, but because of the restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles they could not serve in military capacities. Chiang initially requested famous generals such as Ludendorff and von Mackensen as advisers; the Weimar Republic government turned him down, however, fearing that they were too famous, would invite the ire of the Allies and that it would result in the loss of national prestige for such renowned figures to work, essentially, as mercenaries. When Adolf Hitler became Germany's chancellor in 1933 and disavowed the Treaty, the anti- communist Nazi Party and the anti-communist KMT were soon engaged in close cooperation. with Germany training Chinese troops and expanding Chinese infrastructure, while China opened its markets and natural resources to Germany. Max Bauer was the first adviser to China. The NRA during World War II In 1934, Gen. Hans von Seeckt, acting as adviser to Chiang, proposed an "80 Division Plan" for reforming the entire Chinese army into 80 divisions of highly trained, well-equipped troops organised along German lines. The plan was never fully realised, as the eternally bickering warlords could not agree upon which divisions were to be merged and disbanded. Furthermore, since embezzlement and fraud were commonplace, especially in understrength divisions (the state of most of the divisions), reforming the military structure would threaten divisional commanders' "take". Therefore, by July 1937 only eight infantry divisions had completed reorganization and training. These were the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 14th, 36th, 87th, 88th, and the Training Division. Another German general, Alexander von Falkenhausen, came to China in 1934 to help reform the army. However, because of Nazi Germany's later cooperation with the Empire of Japan, he was later recalled in 1937. After his goodbye party with Chiang Kai-shek's family, he promised not to reveal his devised battle plans to the Japanese. Chinese propaganda poster depicting the National Revolutionary Army. For a time, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Communist forces fought as a nominal part of the National Revolutionary Army, forming the Eighth Route Army and the New Fourth Army units, but this co- operation later fell apart. Throughout the Chinese Civil War the National Revolutionary Army experienced major problems with desertion, with many soldiers switching sides to fight for the Communists. Troops in India and Burma during World War II included the Chinese Expeditionary Force (Burma), the Chinese Army in India and Y Force.See for example Charles F. Romanus and Riley Sunderland, United States Army in World War II: China-Burma-India Theater, United States Army, 1952 The US government repeatedly threatened to cut off aid to China during World War 2 unless they handed over total command of all Chinese military forces to the US. After considerable stalling, the arrangement only fell through due to a particularly insulting letter from the Americans to Chiang.Taylor, Jay. 2009. The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts , pp. 277-292 After the drafting and implementation of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947, the National Revolutionary Army was transformed into the ground service branch of the Republic of China Armed Forces – the Republic of China Army (ROCA). ==Structure== Elite German-trained divisions of National Revolutionary Army before the Battle of Wuhan A platoon of the National Revolutionary Army marching in British helmets during a parade in Burma in 1943. The NRA throughout its lifespan recruited approximately 4,300,000 regulars, in 370 Standard Divisions (正式師), 46 New Divisions (新編師), 12 Cavalry Divisions (騎兵師), eight New Cavalry Divisions (新編騎兵師), 66 Temporary Divisions (暫編師), and 13 Reserve Divisions (預備師), for a grand total of 515 divisions. However, many divisions were formed from two or more other divisions, and were not active at the same time. At the apex of the NRA was the National Military Council, also translated as Military Affairs Commission. Chaired by Chiang Kai-Shek, it directed the staffs and commands. It included from 1937 the Chief of the General Staff, General He Yingqin, the General Staff, the War Ministry, the military regions, air and naval forces, air defence and garrison commanders, and support services Around 14 Million were conscripted from 1937-1945. Also, New Divisions were created to replace Standard Divisions lost early in the war and were issued the old division's number. Therefore, the number of divisions in active service at any given time is much smaller than this. The average NRA division had 5,000–6,000 troops; an average army division had 10,000–15,000 troops, the equivalent of a Japanese division. Not even the German-trained divisions were on par in terms of manpower with a German or Japanese division, having only 10,000 men. The United States Army's campaign brochure on the China Defensive campaign of 1942–45 said:United States Army, China Defensive 4 July 1942 – 4 May 1945, p.5 > The NRA only had small number of armoured vehicles and mechanised troops. At > the beginning of the war in 1937 the armour were organized in three Armoured > Battalions, equipped with tanks and armoured cars from various countries. > After these battalions were mostly destroyed in the Battle of Shanghai and > Battle of Nanjing. The newly provided tanks, armoured cars, and trucks from > the Soviet Union and Italy made it possible to create the only mechanized > division in the army, the 200th Division. This Division eventually ceased to > be a mechanized unit after the June 1938 reorganization of Divisions. The > armoured and artillery Regiments were placed under direct command of 5th > Corps and the 200th Division became a motorized Infantry Division within the > same Corps. This Corps fought battles in Guangxi in 1939–1940 and in the > Battle of Yunnan-Burma Road in 1942 reducing the armoured units due to > losses and mechanical breakdown of the vehicles. On paper China had 3.8 > million men under arms in 1941. They were organized into 246 "front-line" > divisions, with another 70 divisions assigned to rear areas. Perhaps as many > as forty Chinese divisions had been equipped with European-manufactured > weapons and trained by foreign, particularly German and Soviet, advisers. > The rest of the units were under strength and generally untrained. Overall, > the Nationalist Army impressed most Western military observers as more > reminiscent of a 19th- than a 20th-century army. Late in the Burma Campaign the NRA Army there had an armoured battalion equipped with Sherman tanks. Despite the poor reviews given by European observers to the European-trained Divisions, the Muslim Divisions of the National Revolutionary Army, trained in China (not by Westerners) and led by Ma Clique Muslim generals, frightened the European observers with their appearance and fighting skills in battle. Europeans like Sven Hedin and Georg Vasel were in awe of the appearance Chinese Muslim NRA divisions made and their ferocious combat abilities. They were trained in harsh, brutal conditions. The 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), trained entirely in China without any European help, was composed of Chinese Muslims and fought and severely mauled an invading Soviet Russian army during the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang. The division was lacking in technology and manpower, but badly damaged the superior Russian force. The Muslim divisions of the army controlled by Muslim Gen. Ma Hongkui were reported by Western observers to be tough and disciplined. Despite having diabetes Ma Hongkui personally drilled with his troops and engaged in sword fencing during training. When the leaders of many of the warlord and provincial armies joined with the KMT and were appointed as officers and generals, their troops joined the NRA. These armies were renamed as NRA divisions. The entire Ma Clique armies were absorbed into the NRA. When the Muslim Ma Clique General Ma Qi joined the KMT, the Ninghai Army was renamed the National Revolutionary Army 26th Division. ===Unit organization=== Chinese Nationalist soldier, age 10, member of a Chinese division from the X Force, boarding planes in Burma bound for China, May 1944. The unit organisation of the NRA is as follows: (Note that a unit is not necessarily subordinate to one immediately above it; several army regiments can be found under an army group, for example.) The commander-in- chief of the NRA from 1925 to 1947 was Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. Military Affairs Commission *Military Region ×12 (戰區) **Army Corps ×4(兵團) – the Army Corps, 兵團, was one of the largest military formations in the NRA during the Second Sino-Japanese War.Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) 2nd Ed., 1971. Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung, Chung Wu Publishing; 33, 140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan Republic of China. These Army Corps were composed of a number of Group Armies, Army, Corps, Divisions, Brigades and Regiments. In numbers of divisions, they were larger than Western Army groups. Only four were ever formed to command the large forces defending the Chinese capital during the Battle of Wuhan in 1938. (See Order of battle of Battle of Wuhan). ***Army Group ×40 (集團軍 Group Army) ****Route Army (路軍) ****Field army ×30 (軍) *****Corps ×133 (軍團 Army Group) – usually exercised command over two to three NRA Divisions and often a number of Independent Brigades or Regiments and supporting units. The Chinese Republic had 133 Corps during the Second Sino-Japanese War. After losses in the early part of the war, under the 1938 reforms, the remaining scarce artillery and the other support formations were withdrawn from the Division and was held at Corps, or Army level or higher. The Corps became the basic tactical unit of the NRA having strength nearly equivalent to an allied Division. ******Division (師) *******Brigade (旅) ********Regiment (團) *********Battalion (營) **********Company (連) ***********Platoon (排) ************Squad (班) ===Suicide squads=== During the Xinhai Revolution and the Warlord Era of the Republic of China (1912–1949), "Dare to Die Corps" () or "Suicide squads"敢死队_百科词条, so.baike.com; accessed July 15, 2015. were frequently used by Chinese armies. China deployed these suicide units against the Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War. "Dare to Die" troops were used by warlords in their armies to conduct suicide attacks. "Dare to Die" corps continued to be used in the Chinese military. The Kuomintang used one to put down an insurrection in Canton. Many women joined them in addition to men to achieve martyrdom against China's opponents. A "dare to die corps" was effectively used against Japanese units at the Battle of Taierzhuang. They used swords. Chinese suicide bomber putting on an explosive vest made out of Model 24 hand grenades to use in an attack on Japanese tanks at the Battle of Taierzhuang. Suicide bombing was also used against the Japanese. A Chinese soldier detonated a grenade vest and killed 20 Japanese soldiers at Sihang Warehouse. Chinese troops strapped explosives like grenade packs or dynamite to their bodies and threw themselves under Japanese tanks to blow them up. This tactic was used during the Battle of Shanghai, where a Chinese suicide bomber stopped a Japanese tank column by exploding himself beneath the lead tank, and at the Battle of Taierzhuang where dynamite and grenades were strapped on by Chinese troops who rushed at Japanese tanks and blew themselves up. In one incident at Taierzhuang, Chinese suicide bombers obliterated four Japanese tanks with grenade bundles. ===Penal Battalions=== During the Chinese Civil War the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) was known to have used penal battalions from 1945 to 1949. A unit made up of deserters and those accused of cowardice, the penal battalion was giving such tasks as scouting ahead of the main forces to check for ambushes, crossing rivers and torrents to see whether they were fordable, and walking across unmapped minefields. ===Conscription=== The military was formed through bloody and inhumane conscription campaigns. These are described by Rudolph Rummel as: > This was a deadly affair in which men were kidnapped for the army, rounded > up indiscriminately by press-gangs or army units among those on the roads or > in the towns and villages, or otherwise gathered together. Many men, some > the very young and old, were killed resisting or trying to escape. Once > collected, they would be roped or chained together and marched, with little > food or water, long distances to camp. They often died or were killed along > the way, sometimes less than 50 percent reaching camp alive. Then recruit > camp was no better, with hospitals resembling Nazi concentration camps like > Buchenwald. == Personnel == === Officers === { style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;" - bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="text-align:center;" ! ! colspan=4 General officers ! colspan=3 Senior commissioned officers ! colspan=3 Junior commissioned officers ! Warrant officers - style="text-align:center;" Insignia 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px - style="text-align:center;" Title Generalissimo 特級上將 General 一級上將 二級上將 Lieutenant general 中將 Major general 少將 Colonel 上校 Lieutenant colonel 中校 Major 少校 Captain 上尉 Lieutenant 中尉 Second lieutenant 少尉 Warrant Officer 准尉 } === Other ranks === { style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background- color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;" - bgcolor="#CCCCCC" style="text-align:center;" ! ! colspan=3 Non-commissioned officers ! colspan=3 Soldiers - style="text-align:center;" Insignia 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px 100px - style="text-align:center;" Title Sergeant major 上士 Sergeant 中士 Corporal 下士 Senior private 上等兵 Private first class 一等兵 Private second class 二等兵 } == Equipment == German M35 helmet and a ZB vz. 26. German-equipped Chinese troops practicing a march at the Chinese Military Academy at Chengtu in 1944. For regular provincial Chinese divisions the standard rifles were the Hanyang 88 (copy of Gewehr 88). Central army divisions were typically equipped with the Chiang Kai-shek rifle and other Mauser type rifles from Germany, Belgium and Czechoslovakia. The standard light machine gun were imported or domestically produced of the Czech Brno ZB vz. 26 in the standard 7.92 mm. There were machine guns from other sources, such as Belgian, French and from the Soviet Aid Programme. In general, there were 6-9 LMG's in an infantry company, with the monthly ammunition supply being around 5,000 rounds (for 5 days consumption). Heavy machine guns were mainly locally-made Type 24 water- cooled Maxim guns (which were based on the commercial version of the German MG08), and Type Triple-Ten M1917 Browning machine guns chambered for the standard 8mm Mauser round. On average, every Central Army battalion contained a machine gun company with 5-6 heavy machine guns. They were allotted a monthly supply of 20,000 rounds. The most common sidearm for NCOs and officers was the 7.63 mm Mauser C96 semi-automatic pistol. Submachine guns were not part of any TO&E;, but many were inherited from former warlord armies or locally produced. They were generally carried by the guards of divisional or corps commanders or special service platoon/companies. Some elite units, such as the X Force in Burma used Lend-Lease US equipment. US-equipped Chinese Army in India marching. Generally speaking, the regular provincial army divisions did not possess any artillery. However, some Central Army divisions were equipped with 37 mm PaK 35/36 anti-tank guns, and/or mortars from Oerlikon, Madsen, and Solothurn. Each of these infantry divisions ideally had 6 French Brandt 81 mm mortars and 6 Solothurn 20 mm autocannons. Some independent brigades and artillery regiments were equipped with Bofors 72 mm L/14, or Krupp 72 mm L/29 mountain guns and there were 24 Rheinmetall 150 mm L/32 sFH 18 howitzers (bought in 1934) and 24 Krupp 150 mm L/30 sFH 18 howitzers (bought in 1936). At the start of the war, the NRA and the Tax Police Regiment had three tank battalions armed with German Panzer I light tanks and CV-35 tankettes. After defeat in the Battle of Shanghai the remaining tanks, together with several hundred T-26 and BT-5 tanks acquired from the Soviet Union were reorganised into the 200th Division. Infantry uniforms were basically redesigned Zhongshan suits. Puttees were standard for soldiers and officers alike, since the primary mode of movement for NRA troops was by foot. Troops were also issued sewn field caps. The helmets were the most distinguishing characteristic of these divisions. From the moment German M35 Stahlhelms rolled off the production lines in 1935, and until 1936, the NRA imported 315,000 of these helmets, usually seen with the Blue Sky with a White Sun emblem of the ROC on the sides. These helmets were worn by both the German-trained divisions and regular Central Army divisions. Other helmets included the French Adrian helmet, the British Brodie helmet and later the American M1 helmet. Other equipment included straw shoes for soldiers (cloth shoes for Central Army), leather shoes for officers and leather boots for high-ranking officers. Every soldier was issued ammunition for his weapon, along with ammunition pouches or harness, a water flask, combat knives, food bag, and a gas mask. ==See also== *Whampoa Military Academy *List of German- trained divisions of the National Revolutionary Army *Sino-German cooperation until 1941 *Military history of the Republic of China *Douglas MacArthur ==References== ==Further reading== * Dreyer, Edward L. (1995) China at War 1901–1949 (reprint Routledge, 2014) * Jowett, Philip. (2013) China's Wars: Rousing the Dragon 1894–1949 (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013). * Li, Xiaobing. (2012) China at War: An Encyclopedia excerpt *Lynch, Dr Michael, The Chinese Civil War 1945–49: Modern Warfare (Guide To... Book 61) Osprey Publishing (2010), ==External links== *ROC Ministry of National Defense Official Website *The Armed Forces Museum of ROC *Information and pictures of Nationalist Revolutionary Army weapons and equipment *rare pictures of NRA heavy armoury *more pictures of NRA Category:Military of the Republic of China Category:Kuomintang Category:Military history of the Republic of China Category:Military wings of political parties Category:Military units and formations established in 1925 Category:1925 establishments in China Category:1920s in China Category:1930s in China Category:1940s in China "

— National Revolutionary Army 🏵️