"The Bank of Mongolia, or Mongolbank, is the central bank of Mongolia. The main objective of the Bank of Mongolia is to ensure stability of the Mongolian tögrög. Within its main objective the Bank of Mongolia promotes balanced and sustained development of the national economy, through maintaining the stability of money, financial markets and the banking system. ==History== A joint Mongolian-Russian bank, called the "Trade and Industry Bank of Mongolia" (Bank of Mongolia) was opened on June 2, 1924 in Altanbulag with a single branch. At that time, the bank's capital was 260000 yanchaan (the currency of the period). It operated with 22 employees, 18 of which were Russian specialists and 4 of them were Mongolian. At the start, the joint bank was called by two names, "Trade and Industry Bank of Mongolia", and the "Bank of Mongolia", but it was named the Bank of Mongolia in official papers and documents. Due to the absence of a national currency, the bank faced difficulties in fulfilling financial and monetary-credit policy in the first 18 months, and foreign currencies were used in circulation. Consequently, according to the decision of Ikh Khural, the Government of Mongolia issued a resolution to conduct monetary reform on February 22, 1925. In accordance with this resolution, the Bank of Mongolia issued a new national currency, the Tögrög, consisting of 25% for precious metal and foreign stable currency, and 75% for marketable goods. In 1954, the makeup of the Bank staff had increased to 98% (compare to 18% in 1924). On the basis of this extension, the former Soviet Union transferred its own share of capital and stocks in the Bank of Mongolia to the state of Mongolia. Following this, the Bank of Mongolia was renamed as the State Bank of Mongolia. In 1991, a completely new 2 level banking system was established in Mongolia. Since its establishment, the Bank of Mongolia has been influencing and contributing efforts on the economy of the country, in maintaining the monetary policy aimed at the stabilisation of the value of the currency, and reduction of the inflation rate in the unstable transitional period. In May 2010, the Bank of Mongolia tightened its monetary policy stance by raising its policy rate by 1.0 percentage points to 11.00 percent to bring CPI inflation down, to reduce the growth of credit and monetary aggregates. As of April 2012, the Bank of Mongolia had US$2.9 billion in foreign reserves. The foreign reserves on June 30, 2011 contained US$79 million of U.S governmental securities. == Governors == *V. I. Komar, jointly, (1924-1931)Bank of Mongolia *D. I. Mikilman, jointly, (1924-1931) *N. I. Doichman, jointly, (1924-1931) *S. Dovchin, (1931-1939) *Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal, (1939-1940) *T. Baldan, (1940-1955) *G. Baljid, (1955-1960) *Luyugiin Lkhamsuren, (1960-1965) *P. Tumur, (1965-1975) *D. Danzan, (1975-1981) *Gochoogiyin Khuderchuluun, (1981-1991) *Naidansürengiin Jargalsaikhan, (1991-1992)Historical Dictionary of Mongolia - Alan J.K. Sanders *Demchigjabyn Molomjamts, (1992-1996) *Jigjid Unenbat, (1996-2000) *Ochirbat Chuluunbat, (2000-2006) *Alag Batsukh, (2006-2009) *Lkhanaasuren Purevdorj, (2009-2012) *Naidansuren Zoljargal, (2012-2016) *Nadmidyn Bayartsaikhan, (2016-2019) *Byadran Lkhagvasuren, (since 2019) == Ongoing activities == Bank of Mongolia increased minimum capital requirement for banks periodically, and capital adequacy ratio of the banking sector was as high as 14-24 percent since 2000, which is 1.8-3 times higher than international minimum standards. With strong economic growth, private sector credit has increased significantly. Banks’ total outstanding loans were MNT 60 billion which were issued to 1700 borrowers in 2000, compared to total outstanding loans of MNT 2,000 billion issued to 483 thousand borrowers in September, 2007. Ratio of non-performing loans fell to 3.5 per cent in September 2007, down from 24 per cent in 2000 and 50% in 1999 following repeated banking crises in the 1990s. Following the 2008 financial crisis, this rose again to 20% in 2009 but by June 2010 had fallen to 7.7%. Financial sector is fully privatized, and now 16 banks, 141 non-bank financial institutions and 131 savings and credit cooperatives are operating in Mongolia. Profitability of banks was high compared to most advanced countries, which have return on assets ratio of 2.7 per cent in 2007. And three commercial banks such as Khan Bank, Xac bank and Trade and Development Bank of Mongolia are also rated by the agencies on its products, assets and activities. They are on its way to issue securities to foreign market. The bank is active in developing financial inclusion policy and is a member of the Alliance for Financial Inclusion. In 2009, the Bank of Mongolia rescued Zoos Bank at a cost of MNT 100 billion, combining it with Anod Bank to form the government-owned State Bank. Later in 2013, the Mongol Bank was forced to take over the 5th largest lender, Savings Bank, and merge with State Bank, due to a bad loan made to a gold mine owned by its parent company, Just Group, at a cost of $120 million. State Bank is a state-owned company separate from the Bank of Mongolia. ==ReferencesExternal links== * Category:Banks of Mongolia Mongolia Category:Banks established in 1924 Category:1924 establishments in Mongolia "

— Bank of Mongolia 🌱

"A map of the language divisions within Justinian I's Byzantine Empire Language geography is the branch of human geography that studies the geographic distribution of language(s) or its constituent elements. Linguistic geography can also refer to studies of how people talk about the landscape. For example, toponymy is the study of place names. Landscape ethnoecology, also known as ethnophysiography, is the study of landscape ontologies and how they are expressed in language. There are two principal fields of study within the geography of language: #geography of languages, which deals with the distribution through history and space of languages,Delgado de Carvalho, C.M. (1962). The geography of languages. In Wagner, P.L.; Mikesell, M.W. Readings in cultural geography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 75–93. and/or is concerned with 'the analysis of the distribution patterns and spatial structures of languages in contact'.Williams, C.H. (1980). "Language contact and language change in Wales, 1901–1971: a study in historical geolinguistics". Welsh History Review 10, 207–238. # geolinguistics being, when used as a sub-discipline of geography, the study of the 'political, economic and cultural processes that affect the status and distribution of languages. When perceived as a sub-discipline of linguistics which incorporates contact linguistics, one definition appearing has been 'the study of languages and dialects in contact and in conflict with various societal, economic, ideological, political and other contemporary trends with regard to a particular geographic location and on a planetary scale'. Various other terms and subdisciplines have been suggested, but none gained much currency,Withers, Charles W.J. [1981] (1993). Johnson, R.J. The Dictionary of Human Geography, Gregory, Derek; Smith, David M., Second edition, Oxford: Blackwell, 252–3. including: * linguistic geography,Dell'Aquila, V. (1997). Mapping the languages of Europe in Herberts K., Laurén C., Laurén U, Strömann S. (Eds.): "Flerspråkighetens dimensioner. Individ, familj och samhälle", Vaasan Yliopiston Julkaisuja: Vaasa/Vasa, 103–131. which deals with regional linguistic variations within languages,Pei, M. (1966). Glossary of linguistic terminology. New York: John Wiley.Trudgill, P. (1974). Linguistic change and diffusion: description and explanation in sociolinguistic dialect geography. Language in Society 3:2, 215–46.Trudgill, P. (1983). On dialect: social and geographical perspectives. Oxford: Basil Blackwell; New York: New York University Press.Trudgill, P. (1975). Linguistic geography and geographical linguistics. Progress in Geography 7, 227–52 also called 'dialect geography' which some consider a subdivision of geolinguistics * a division within the examination of linguistic geography separating the studies of change over time and space;Iordan, I.; Orr, J. (1970). An introduction to romance linguistics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell; Berkeley: University of California Press. Many studies in what is now called contact linguistics have researched the effect of language contact,Weinrich, U. (1974). Languages in contact. The Hague: Mouton. as the languages or dialects (varieties) of peoples have interacted. This territorial expansion of language groups has usually resulted in the overlaying of languages upon existing speech areas, rather than the replacement of one language by another. An example could be sought in the Norman Conquest of England: Old French became the language of the aristocracy but Middle English remained the language of the majority of the population.Burchfield, Robert [1985] (2003). The English Language, New York: Oxford University Press, 14. == Linguistic geography == Linguistic geography, as a field, is dominated by linguists rather than geographers. Charles W. J. Withers describes the difference as resulting from a focus on "elements of language, and only then with their geographical or social variation, as opposed to investigation of the processes making for change in the extent of language areas." Peter Trudgill says, "linguistic geography has been geographical only in the sense that it has been concerned with the spatial distribution of linguistic phenomena." Greater emphasis has been laid upon explanation rather than mere description of the patterns of linguistic change. That move has paralleled similar concerns in geography and language studies.Withers, C.W.J. (1984). Gaelic in Scotland 1698–1981: the geographical history of a language. Edinburgh: John Donald; Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press. Some studies have paid attention to the social useHult, F.M. (2009). Language ecology and linguistic landscape analysis. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery (pp. 88–104). London: Routledge. of language and to variations in dialect within languages in regard to social class or occupation.Giglioli, P.P. (1972). Language and social context. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Regarding such variations, lexicographer Robert Burchfield notes that their nature "is a matter of perpetual discussion and disagreement" and notes that "most professional linguistic scholars regard it as axiomatic that all varieties of English have a sufficiently large vocabulary for the expression of all the distinctions that are important in the society using it." He contrasts this with the view of the historian John Vincent, who regards such a view as Burchfield concludes, "Resolution of such opposite views is not possible.... future of dialect studies and the study of class-marked distinctions are likely to be of considerable interest to everyone."Burchfield, Robert [1985] (2003). The English Language, New York: Oxford University Press, 128–130. In England, linguistic geography has traditionally focused upon rural English, rather than urban English.In 1985, one could still say, "We still know far more about the distribution of byre/shippon/mistall/cow-stable/cow-house/cow-shed/neat- house/beast-house for 'cow-shed' than we do about urban synonyms for pedestrian crossings, lollipop men, machines used to wash cars, forecourts of petrol stations, bollards, sleeping policemen, pay-out desks, supermarket trolleys, traffic wardens, telephone booths and hundreds of other items found in every city in the United Kingdom." Burchfield, Robert [1985] (2003). The English Language, New York: Oxford University Press, 128. A common production of linguistic investigators of dialects is the shaded and dotted map showing to show where one linguistic feature ends and another begins or overlaps. Various compilations of these maps for England have been issued over the years, including Joseph Wright's English Dialect Dictionary (1896–1905), the Survey of English Dialects (1962–8), and The Linguistic Atlas of England (1978).Burchfield, Robert [1985] (2003). The English Language, New York: Oxford University Press, 125. == Geolinguistic organizations == Most geolinguistic organizations identify themselves as associations of linguists rather than of geographers. This includes the two oldest which both date to 1965 with "Amici Linguarum" (language friends) being founded by Erik V. Gunnemark and The American Society of Geolinguistics by Prof. Mario A. Pei. The research in geolinguistics which these organizations and others, which are more geographically oriented, promote is often interdisciplinary, being at times simultaneously both linguistic and geographic, and also being at times linked to other sub-disciplines of linguistics as well as going beyond linguistics to connect to sociology, anthropology, ethnology, history, demographics, political science, studies of cognition and communication, etc. ==See also== * Dialect continuum * Language policy * Linguistic ecology * Linguistic landscape * Linguistic map * Linguistic rights * Sprachbund == References External links== *Linguistic atlas of the world *American Society of Geolinguistics Category:Human geography "

— Language geography 🌱

"Category:Fungal morphology and anatomy "

— Echinulate 🌱